TURKISH ARCHITECTURE

In their homeland in Central Asia, Turks lived in dome-like tents appropriate to their natural surroundings. These tents later influenced Turkish architecture and ornamental arts.

When the Seljuk Turks first arrived in Iran, they encountered an architecture based on old traditions. Integrating this with elements from their own traditions, the Seljuks produced new types of structures, most notably the "medrese." The first medreses (moslem theological schools) were constructed in the 11th century by the famous minister Nizamulmulk, during the time of Alpaslan and Meliksah. The most important ones are the three government medreses in Nisabur, Tus and Baghdad and the Hargerd Medrese in Horasan.

Another area in which the Seljuks contributed to architecture is that of tomb monument. These can be divided into two types: vaults and large dome-like mausoleums.

The Ribati-Serif and the Ribati Anasirvan are examples of surviving 12th century Seljuk caravansarays, which offered shelter for travellers. Seljuk buildings generally incorporate brick, while the inner and outer walls are decorated in a material made by mixing marble, powder, lime and plaster.

In typical buildings of the Anatolian Seljuk period, the major construction material was wood, laid horizontally except along windows and doors where columns were considered more decorative.

Turkish architecture reached its peak during the Ottoman period. Ottoman architecture, influenced by Seljuk, Byzantine and Arab architecture, came to develop a style all of its own.

The years 1300-1453 constitute the early or first Ottoman period, when Ottoman art was in search of new ideas. This period witnessed three types of mosques: tiered, single-domed and subline-angled mosques. The Junior Haci Ozbek Mosue (1333) in Iznik, the first important center of Ottoman art, is the first example of an Ottoman single-domed mosque.

The domed architectural style evolved from Bursa and Edirne. The Holy Mosque in Bursa was the first Seljuk mosque to be converted into a domed one. Edirne was the last Ottoman capital before Istanbul, and it is here that we witness the final stages in the architectural development that culminated in the construction of the great mosques of Istanbul. The buildings constructed in Istanbul during the period between the capture of the city and the construction of the Istanbul Beyazit mosque are also considered works of the early period. Among these are the Faith mosque (1470), Mahmutpasa mosque, the tiled palace and Topkapi Palace.

The Ottomans integrated mosques into the community and added soup kitchens, theological schools, hospitals, Turkish baths and tombs.

During the classical period mosque plans changed to include inner and outer courtyards. The inner courtyard and the mosque were inseparable. The master architect of the classical period, Mimar Sinan, was born in 1492 in Kayseri and died in Istanbul in the year 1588. Sinan started a new era in world architecture, creating 334 buildings in various cities. Mimar Sinan's first important work was the Sehzade Mosque completed in 1548. His second significant work was the Suleymaniye Mosque and the surrounding complex, built for Kanuni Sultan Suleyman. The Selimiye mosque in Edirne was built during the years 1568-74, when Sinan was in his prime as an architect.The Rustempasa, Mihriman Sultan, Imbrahimpasa, and Sinan mosques and the Sehzade, Kanuni Sultan Suleyman Hurrem Sultan and Selim II mausoleums are among Sinan's most renowned works.

During the years 1720-1890, Ottoman art deviated from the principals of classical times. In the 18th century, during the Lale, or Tulip, period, Ottoman art came under the influence of the excessive decoration of the western Baroque and Roccoco styles. Fountains became the characteristic structures of this period. An eclecticism set in. The Aksaray Valide mosque is an example of the mixture of Turkish art and Gothic style.

In Turkish architecture, the years 1890-1930 are looked upon as the neoclassical period. In this period, Turkish architects looked into the religious and classical buildings of former times for inspiration in their attempts to construct a national architecture. Nationalism, developing strongly after the second Ottoman constitutional period, freed Ottoman architecture from the influence of western art, and thereby brought about a new style based on classical Ottoman architecture.

Following this development, the Ismet Pasa Girls' Institute, the Ankara Faculty of Letters, the Saracoglu district, the Grand Theater and the Istanbul Hilton paved the way for recognition of contemporary architecture. During this period, Sedat Hakki Eldem built the Istanbul Science-Literature Faculty and Emim Onat designed Ataturk's Mausoleum, in Ankara.

After 1950, the trend in constructing buildings came to depend more on their purpose, the requirements of the age, awareness of town planning and the practicality of construction materials. The National Library designed by Sevki Vanli, the Turkish Historical Society building by Turgut Cansever, the Istanbul Anatolian Club, Behruz Cinici's Erzurum Ataturk University, Ankara's Middle East Technical University, the Oren and Bodrum coastal strips, the Houses of Parliament, the Kayseri Surgical Clinic designed by Affan Kirimli, the Adana Social Security Headquarters and the Ankara Medical Faculty Hospitals are all examples of Republican architecture.

By the 1970s, many old buildings of architectural significance were converted into hotels and restaurants for public use. Also during this period, Turkish architectural styles enjoyed a resurgence

ALAADDİN MOSQUE

Alaaddin Mosque is on the top of the so-called Alaaddin Mound (Alaattin Tepesi). The Palace of the Seljukid sultans was once inside a citadel that was standing on this small hill. The Alaaddin Mosque was built adjacent to the palace following the example of Early Islamic palace mosques. The mosque comprises two different structural units juxtaposed in different periods. The east wing of the building is believed to have been built by Sultan Mas'ud before 1155. There is a trapezoidal interior filled with rows of Hellenistic and Byzantine columns, tied together by pointed arches that run parallel to the mihrab wall. The west wing, on the other hand is known to have been built during the first quarter of the thirteenth century by the Sultans Izzeddin Keykavus and Alaaddin Keykubad. At the centre of this wing, there is a domed bay in front of the mihrab. According to Aptullah Kuran, this masjid was, in all probability, the private masjid of the Seljukid royal palace, and it must have been combined with Mas'ud's Old Mosque during the fourteenth century. There are two polygonal tombs (kumbet) in the courtyard, which were built for the members of the Seljukid dynasty.

İNCE MİNARELİ MADRASA

Ince Minareli Madrasa was built between the dates 1260-65. It was a work of architect Koluk bin Abdullah whose name is inscribed as "Amel-i Koluk bin Abdullah inside the two symmetrical rosettes on the portal. This madrasa was a theological school (Dar'ul Hadis) in the Seljukid period. Karatay Madrasa falls into the group of enclosed-madrasas: behind the portal is a vaulted square vestibule leading to the central closed space. This latter section is a square area topped by a perforated dome leaning on fan-pendentives. Below the dome is a square pool on the floor. There are domed square rooms on the two sides of an iwan that faces the central space on the west. Small student cells flank the central domed hall on the northern and southern sides.

The minaret on the left of the facade once belonged to a masjid, which was adjacent to the building on the northeastern side. The portal is one of the most intricately ornamented Seljukid portals. Inscriptions and vegetal motifs are juxtaposed in a particular way creating a very balanced and symmetrical design reflecting the elements (eg. tree of life) of heaven and harmony contained in it.

KARATAY MADRASA

The rectangular panels on the two sides of the gate are striking with swastika motifs (compare with Guduk Minare in Sivas).  At first sight, there seems to be a zig zag pattern (photograph below, on the extreme left). Only a keen eye can perceive the swastika motifs, ancient Mesopotamian sun symbols, which indicate a sun-gate leading to heavens. These two panels truly represent the general characteristics of the Anatolian Seljukid architectural decoration. Optical illusion is the essential character of these decorative designs. Whenever one perceives a second layer of motifs, also grasps a continuos flux of lines and motifs that go beyond the bounds of the panel. The conceptual explanation of this decorative understanding can be found in Sufi philosophy of the time. Here, within the limits of this short text,  it is adequate to state that the main idea behind this understanding is 'continuity' and 'unity' in cosmos, which are frequently underlined in Sufi texts. Inside the enclosed section of the building, two domed rooms are placed on  the two sides of the iwan facing the inner court. The southern one of these rooms is the tomb of Celaleddin Karatay. The small rooms flanking the central hall were student cells and the iwan functioned as a seminar room or assembly hall.  The interior wall surfaces are covered with mosaic tiles mainly coloured in turquoise and dark blue. The geometrical star designs on the tiles of the dome create an image of heavens with its stars and planets. Karatay Madrasa today is a museum of Seljukid arts. The glazed tiles shown above are from its collections. These tiles were brought from the summer palace of the sultans on the shores of the Lake Beysehir. Once, they decorated the inner surfaces of the palace walls. In the example above, two birds flank a palmet shaped sacred-tree, an ancient Mesopotamian sun symbol. A peacock can be seen in another one on the right. In these tiles, double-headed and eared eagles, hares, lions, griffons and other animal genera and composite creatures are represented among and on the two sides of plant motifs. The human motifs that are represented sitting crosslegged constitute another type. These motifs and the colours applied to paint them created a heavenly atmosphere in spaces they once existed. These tiles without doubt, express a peculiar understanding of life. Here, we can merely say that a heavenly domain was probably regarded appropriate to the Turkish Sultan who was the applier of the power of God (Sultan: governmental power bestowed by God). The supernatural character of some motifs and the existence of ancient sun symbols among them support this idea. The cross-shaped tiles have the purpose of fastening the eigth-cornered tiles that contain these motifs. On the other hand, they are the symbols of old cosmological notions like four directions, the centre of the world and four sun-gates. The literature on Buddhist Mandala and Chinese  'TLV' mirrors is advisable to the reader in order to interpret the symbolism behind these motifs.

AĞZIKARAHAN

The donor of this caravanserai (1231-37) is Hoca Mesud bin Abdullah. Unlike axial caravanserais, the entrance  to this building is provided through a portal laterally situated in front of a vestibule. This portal is ornamented with geometrical motifs that are patterned on so-called star systems. Giving the idea of eternity and unity of God, this systems with arms spread from star-shaped hubs have some certain cosmological meanings. In similar to Aksaray Sultan Han, there is a kiosk-masjid at the centre of the courtyard, stables and service rooms flanking the court and a pillared enclosed section with 6 aisles.

KÖSK MADRASA

Kosk Madrasa was built for Suli Pasa by her husband Emir Ertena in 1339. This building is uncompromising from outside with its fortress like exterior. There are staircases leading to vaulted rooms on the two sides of its iwan-like entrance vestibule. At the centre of the building is an arcaded green courtyard in strong contrast to the bare walls of the monument. This courtyard contains an octagonal kumbet with a heightened crypt and pyramidal cap. This monument is far from the old ciy of Kayseri; its use as a madrasa is not proven with documents or any other source. This building was most probably constructed as a monument to commemorate Emir Ertena and his spouse, Suli Pasa. In the tradition of earlier commemorative buildings, it contains an ambulatory space around the tomb, which is circumscribed by the arcades. The vaulted rooms at the entrance section were probably resting places for the visitors of the memorial and service rooms were for charity purposes. Structurally the most important sections of the building are the ingenous juxtapositions of arches where the arcades conjoin at the four corners (see the photograph on the right below) of the courtyard.

SULTAN HAN

This karavansarai is one of the largest of its genre (4500 sq.m.). Sultan Alaeddin Keykubad I built Aksaray Sultan Han, in 1229. With its buttresses and sturdy walls, it has the appearance of a fort on the outside. This Sultan Han falls into the group of double-sectioned caravanserais: there is a huge enclosed hall on the south and an open courtyard in front of it. Entrance to this latter section is through an imposing portal and a rectangular vestibule covered with a star-shaped vault behind it. On the two sides of the arch crowning the portal niche one may read the name of the maser-architect inscribed inside two hexagonal medallions: "Amele Muhammed bin Hav (la) n (el-Dimiski)". The word Dimiski indicates the origin of the architect who came from Damascus. The Syrian origin of the architect is also evident from the decoration of the portal, which reminds Zengid stone works. The vaulted rooms on the two sides of the entrance vestibule were used as office rooms for administrative operations.

The masjid of the caravanserai is at the centre of the courtyard. It leans on four big arches and contains a mihrab on the inside. It is because a caravanserai is a profane and a very functional building; so-called kiosk-masjid is heightened from the ground to create a space devoted to the house of God. Stables and rooms, which were covering daily services like medication, game, nourishment and assembly, are placed around the courtyard. Barrel vaults cover all these rectangular units. The portal of the enclosed section fronts the masjid in the courtyard. Behind it, is the huge hall of the sleeping and living grounds. The interior is divided into 9 aisles through arcades running east to west and covered with barrel vaults. There are two rows of confronting arches that flank the central aisle perpendicular to the portal. This central aisle which is wider than the others, has the character of a nave. The central one of the east-west aisles intersects it creating a cross at the centre for orientation. A dome with a conical cap on the outside covers the square unit at the centre of the cross.

ÇİFTE MİNARELİ MADRASA

An Ilkhanid vizier, Semseddin Cuveyni, is the donor of this madrsa (1271). Except the portal and the walls on the two sides of it, the building is extinct today. It was an open-type of madrasa with four iwans flanking an open court at the middle. There were arcades in front of the student cells and two big domed rooms on the two sides of the main iwan. The domed room on the south of the entrance vestibule served as the masjid of the school. The portal and window frames in the facade of the building are decorated with floral and geometrical motifs. The plant motifs, which are called 'rumi' or 'palmet' in art historical terminology, with their projecting surfaces show the caharacteristics of the late Seljukid decoration  The sacred tree (sidrat ul-munteha), which is a sign of the upper sky (alam al-ghaib), is abstracted in palmet and rumi compositions.

The cosmological concept behind these kind of excessively embellished portals is the 'gate of heavens'. Arabic inscriptions are usually verses from the Holy Book of the Muslims, Kor'an. These verses represent the word of God. The abstract existence of God is symbolised through them.  The idea of unity (and eternity attached to this) is the main theme of the order in the skies established by God. This latter concept is substantiated in geometrical motifs that constitute compositions of endless spokes springing from central stars that frame the portal niche.

GÖK MADRASA

Vizier Sahib Ata was the donor of this school (1271). The name of the architect (el Konevi) is incribed inside medallions on the two sides of the entrance gate. With its double minarets on the two sides of its imposing portal and densely decorated corner turrets, the facade of this building resembles to the entrance section of a city wall, hence reminds the concept of heavenly city that shaped the Gothic cathedral in Europe.  Huge rumi and palmet motifs applied on the portal are a characteristic of the late Seljukid architectural decoration. There are two sacred tree compositions on the two sides of the portal frames. These trees that contain eared eagles perched on the leaves, represent the layers of the universe and entrance gates to heavens. The fountain attached on one of the side walls of the facade is a rare example of the Seljukid water supply devices. Brick is  a lighter material, hence its use in the structure of the minarets is explainable. Minarets are for the purpose of calling to prayer the Muslims of the surrounding district. The entrance to the square domed masjid is from the vestibule on the back of the gate. Accross the masjid is another domed room adjacent to a vaulted service room (kitchen?) at the corner. There is an open courtyard behind the entrance section and two rows of columns and arches in front of the student cells. This madrasa contains three iwans that face the courtyard, hence it is a cross-axial type. The main iwan together with its back wall are exticnt. Some of the architectural fragments from this fallen part are spread in the backyard behind a safeguarding wall built in its place.  A restoration is neccessary to maintain this 7 hundred years old building.

ORHAN MOSQUE

Orhan Gazi Mosque was built in 1339 by the second Ottoman ruler, Orhan Bey . This building was repaired in 1417 by Bayezid Pasa. Orhan Gazi mosque contains a porch with five bays on the north. A domed vestibule is placed in between the porch and the main prayer hall. This latter part is a rectangular area topped by a dome (8.45 m. in diameter).      Raised by two steps from the hall on the south is the main iwan. This space is a domed rectangle with an elliptical dome (13.50 m.). The transition is provided by squinches decorated inside with broken triangular panels. Two more iwans flank the central iwan. Hence, the mosque is a cross-axial structure. Side iwans are raised and covered by domes that rest on arches. There are rectangular spaces between the side iwans and the porch. The walls of the Mosque are built of composite brick and stone and are topped by saw-toothed cornices. Tall narrow window openings with semicircular arch heads, decorative brick medallions on the walls, and the general character of the masonry work are indications of Byzantine influence.

SELİMİYE MOSQUE

This mosque was commissioned by Sultan Selim II and was built by Architect Sinan between the dates 1568-1574. This grand mosque stands at the centre of a kulliya which comprises a medrese, a dar-ul hadis, a timekeeper's room and an arasta (row of shops). In this mosque Sinan employed an octagonal supporting system that is created through eight pillars incised in a square shell of walls. The four semidomes at the corners of the square behind the arches that spring from the pillars, are intermediary sections between the huge encompassing dome and the walls. These pillars are related to the back walls through supporting arches that provide an ambulatory space in front of the encircling walls. This octagonal disposition of the supporting system and absid-like mihrab section recall the Church of Sergius and Bacchus in Istanbul. But the galleries of this church behind the pillars that create a second floor and the entrance mass (narthexes) are eliminated in Sinan's structure. Hence, the interior of the Selimiye contains a more illuminated and ample space. On the other hand, the absid is retained, for a mihrab placed on a shallow southern wall would prevent the fluidity of the ambulatory space encircling the breathtaking central hall below the dome.

The original decoration is recently restored, but gives an idea of Sinan's artful decorative style. Except the dome, the surfaces of the walls and arches are very plainly painted in light red in order to mark the contours of the basic architectural froms. Glazed tiles cover the mihrab section and the false arches above the windows of the substructure. They are very carefully applied to counterpoise the empy walls below and coloured arches and dome above. The most conspicious element inside the mosque is the respondent's platform (muezzin mahfili) at the centre of the zulla (prayer hall). It is a loggia like wooden piece lifted by columns. At the north-western corner, a bulky truncated pillar is placed in order to mask the staircase leading to the podium. This small pillar brings a module to the prodigious scaling of the building. On the outside, there are four minarets ingenously placed on the four corners of the main prayer hall. Hence the weight of the enclosing dome is balanced with the vertical extension of these slender towers. The conical caps of the turrets springing from the pillars also contributes to this equilibrium. As customary in Sinan's structures, the elements of the supporting and covering systems are exposed on the outside. The semidomes, pillars, ambulatory space and mihrab can all be perceived from outside. This masterpiece of the world architecture is a real synthesis of the building traditions that flourished in Anatolia. Most prominant of all are Late Roman (Early Byzantine) and Early Turkish elements. Sinan was a real mental giant who had the power of seeing as well as talent of interpreting this Anatolian inheritance, unique in the world.

ÜÇ ŞEREFELİ MOSQUE

Uc serefeli Mosque was begun in 1437 by Murad II and completed in 1447. Its dome (24 m. in diameter) was revolutionazy for the 15'" century. This is no longer a dervish mosque of the Bursa type. On the other hand, the memory of the longitudinal Anatolian mosques with cotumns inside is stitl alive. Two immense freestanding pieis, four inset piers and four arches that spring from them carry the huge dome. The txiangular units between these arches and the arches of the domed side wings are filled with domlettes. The Uc ,serefeli Mosque in Edime is the final expression of the type called "aisled mosque with a dome accent". In Uc ,Serefeli, side wings axe shortened and covered by domes and the central dome extends all the way from the qibla wall to the porch.

SULTAN BEYAZIT KÜLLİYE  

This complex of buildings on the River Tunca in Edirne were designed by Mimar Hayreddin and built between the years 1484-1488. A cubical mosque is encircled by hospices (tabakhama), an imaret (kitchen for poor), timarhane (asylium), medical school, hammam (bath), and storage house. The mosque of the kulliya is a square structure topped by a considerable dome for its age (20.25m.). There is an arcaded court in front of the mosque and two hospices (tabakhana) for guests situated on the east and west of the prayer hall. Access is not possible to these hospices from the prayer hall. They have separate entrance gates that front the outer courtyard of the mosque. The hospices contain a cross plan with corner rooms and four central iwans in between them. A lantern dome covers the hub of this cross-axial plan. The hospital on the west of the mosque is peerles in terms of its inner articulation and services it provided. An inner court fronts a huge hexagonal hall that contains four iwans facing an inner enclosed courtyard surmounted by a lantern dome. There are rooms in between the iwans. An absid like projection form the body of the building was the orchestra of this hall for the performances of musical therapy and theatrical entertainment which were the main agents of the medical care implemented in this institution (see the photograph above on the right). Patient rooms are lined up on the western side of a second courtyard that also contains service and treatment rooms of the hospital. One of these is the insulation room for frantics. Following a tradition inherited from the Seljuks, the hospital is combined with a medical school for theoretical studies (compare Gevher Nesibe Hospital in Kayseri). Hence, advanced students could practice their profession at an early stage and professors could improve new technics of healing. The madrasa contains an arcaded courtyard and student cells. As a typically Ottoman feature, the main classroom accross the entrance gate is covered by a dome instead of a vault. This classroom was also an operation and autopsy hall. The students could watch the surgical operations from a balcony accessible through a staircase next to the entrance gate. Ottoman physicians were probably aware of the bacteria causing infection.

SÜLEYMANİYE MOSQUE

Sultan Suleyman the Magnificant commissioned the Suleymaniye Mosque, which was designed by Architect Sinan and built between the dates 1550-1557. This mosque is the central piece of a kulliya, which crowns one of the seven hills of the world's most beautiful city, Istanbul. This complex of buildings comprises a madrasa, a medical madrasa and hospital (dar'us sifa), a dining hall (dar'us ziyafe), a caravanserai, a bath,  hospices (tabhana)  and shops. The mosque building at the centre dominates the entire complex with its scale and structure. The general layout of its plan was based on Saint Sophia Church in Istanbul. Like St. Sophia, Suleymaniye contains two semidomes and four subsidiary semidomes, which flank a central dome. Four great pillars carry the thrust of this covering system. The galleries of Saint Sophia are absent in Sinan's structure. These are diminished in scale and moved back to the east and west walls so as to function as women's platform. In this way, the levelled gallery arcades of St. Sophia are eliminated. Hence, the sun light piercing through the windows of the side walls reach to the central space without being hindered. The core of the Suleymaniye's plan is closer to a basilica with its oblong central hall and tympana walls on the east and west. On the other hand, the domed central section and the aisles are placed within boundaries created by four equal sized walls. The impression of an elongated upper structure is created by the east and west arches and longitudinal arcades below them. Wide semidomes on the south and north also contribute to this oblong space. On the floor level, the building contains a cubic substructure and four pillars. On the interior, the red and white coloured arches that spring from the corbels incised in the qibla wall give a sense of continuity from the level of the walls to the dome. They also contribute to the illusion of an ambulatory space surrounding the central unit underneath the dome. Below the dome one can appraise this tripartite space: basilical, circular and quadrangular. On the topmost level of the walls a basilica extends, below the covering system a rotunda circulates and behind the pillars a cube circumscribes. The tympana on the east and west are uplifted by three pointed arches leaning on two columns (see the third photograph from left above). Behind these triple row of arches are domes covering the aisles. The central one of these arches is higher and wider than the other two. The rationale for this treatment is certainly to take in the light coming from the windows of the side aisles. The inspiration source of Sinan, in my opinion, is the arcades placed in front of the student cells of a Seljukid madrasa (compare with Gok Madrasa in Sivas). In a Seljukid open madrasa, the cental bay of the arcade fronting the iwan is always higher and wider than the others. Can we then add a fourth dimension to Suleymaniye? If the complexity of Sinan's structures taken into consideration, the answer would only be affirmative. This building also integrates the general layout of a courtyard with four iwans. We can say that in Suleymaniye, Sinan synthesised late Roman and early Turkish traditions and derived an unequalled lucidity from such a multiplicity of sources.
The arches that support the tympana inside the mosque have their counterparts applied on the side facades of the building (first photograph from left above). Below this row of arches filled with windows, an arcade extends in between the buttresses that transmit the thrust of the pillars inside. On the outside, the mosque is like a glove reversed. We can read the inner articulation of the structure through arches, arcades, domes, tympana  and buttressing towers. Compare it with Hagia Sophia, where bulky buttressing system, visible contours of the basilica and large narthex (entrance) section create fragmented facades on the four sides. An arcaded courtyard exists on the north of Suleymaniye Mosque. The southern row of the arcades is higher than the others, where the main entrance to the mosque is located at the centre. With the gold-gilded inscription incised in a panel above the central bay, this section has the character of an entrance facade.

SULTANAHMET MOSQUE

This grand mosque was commissioned by Sultan Ahmet I and constructed by the architect Mehmet Aga between 1609 and 1616. Sultan Ahmet Mosque is next to the Hippodrome across the Hagia Sophia Church. Like Sinan's Sehzade Mosque, this mosque comprises four semidomes and a dome encompassing a nearly square prayer hall (51 meters long, 53 meters wide). Four pointed arches and four gigantic pillars support the dome (23.5 meters in diameter and 43 high). Pendentives fill in the triangular spaces between the arches and the dome. On the picture below (extreme right), one of the semi domes and two of the pendentives can be seen. Arches that spring from the pillars and extend to the buttresses in the back walls lend strenght to the supporting system. They also create square corner spaces topped by small domes. An absolute symmetry reigns everywhere inside the mosque. The semidomes open up the covering system on the four sides above. However, the colossal pillars (five meters in diameter) hinder the expansion of the central space from below the dome to the corners. In order to break their massiveness, the architect added convex flutes that create softer contours.

The building took its second name, Blue Mosque, from the colour of the painted decoration covering the surfaces of the upper structure. It is predominantly in blue. Furthermore, the galleries and the lower parts of the walls are overlayed with Iznik tiles of blue and green colours. The main entrance to the prayer hall is through a portal on the north, which faces an arcaded open courtyard. There are 30 small domes that cover the square spaces behind the arcades. While entering this courtyard from its northern gate one can have an outstanding view of the exquisite fountain (sadirvan) and the mosque behind it (see the photograph above, extreme right). The symmetry, which leads the eye to an invisible directional central line climbing through the ascending order of the domes and culminating at the spire (alem), is a unique feature of this monumental building. The grey colour of the stone used in the construction and the balanced interrelation of the solids and voids outside and within the arches on the facade break the monolithic effect of the building. A second courtyard extends on the outside of the mosque, which encloses the buildings of the complex (kulliya). A sultan's qasr (hunkar kasri) is attached to the northeastern corner and a ramp leads to it. A madrasa, primary school, public kitchen (imarat), market, (charshi), turbah, storerooms and stables are parts of the kulliya. The hospital and the karawanserai of the complex were demolished in the nineteenth century.

ŞEHZADE COMPLEX

Caravanserai is on the road to Vefa High School. It was built between 1543-1548. It caused the Ottoman architecture to attain a new dimension. Kanuni Sultan Suleyman (the Magnificent) had it built by Architect Sinan. It is one of the three big monuments reflecting development stages of the artist. A central structure was attained by supporting the main dome by four half domes on sides and one small dome at each corner.

YILDIZ PALACE

The large wood in which Yildiz Palace built was once a hunting area which also had some vegetable gardens. The first construction work took place in the era of Selim III (1789-1807), when the Sultan had a kiosk built there for his mother Mihrisah.

However, the name "Yildiz" was given to the premises later when Sultan Mahmut II (1808-1839) had the Yildiz Kiosk is situated. The oldest existing structure is the fountain Sultan Selim II had built in commemoration of his father Mustafa III in 1805.

In the era of Sultan Abdulmecit (1839-1861), some of the buildings in the area were pulled down. In 1842, the "Kasri Dilkusa" Castle was built for the Sultan's mother Dilkusa. Later, with the construction of the "Buyuk Mabeyin", "Malta" and "Cadir" Kiosks, and the "Cit" Castle, in the time of Abdulaziz (1860-1865), The Yildiz Palace began to assume its present shape. When Abdulhamit II ascended the throne and chose to live there, new buildings were added and the palace took on its final form.

Yildiz Palace is the last Turkish palace built. It is surrounded by high walls and the living quarters are situated around three courtyards.

The first courtyard leads to the Buyuk Mabeyin and Cit Castles, the Haveran (West) Suite and the Armory buildings, the second courtyard, the Harem buildings, the Theater and the Suite for Regular Concubines and the third courtyard the Sale and Merasim (Ceremony) Kiosks. Beyond the walls there are main builidngs: Hamidiye Mosque, right at the entrance, the Clock Tower, the "Kileri Humayun" (Royal Depot) and the "Agavat" (male servant) Demaprtment. The Malta and Cadir Kiosks are in the grove belonging to Istanbul Municipality.

The Sale, which is one of the buildings in this complex, consitutes one of the best examples of Ottoman architecture of the 19th century. The building comprises two adjacent sections constructed at different dates. The first was completed in 1889 and the second in 1898. This latter-the Merasim (ceremony) Kiosk-is the work of the famous architect D'Aronco.

The Sale was built to accommodate the German Emperor Wilhelm II during his visit to Istanbul and was given the name Sale (chalet) because of its resemblance to mountain houses seen in Switzerland and France. The Sale has the character of a "State guest house" and conforms to Ottoman tradition in that it is divided into two separate sections. One of the most important features of the Sale, with its Harem and its Selamlik (quarters for men), is a 400 square metres Hereke carpet woven in one piece.

In 1984, the Kiosk acquired an important place in Turkish Cultural history by becoming the venue for the National Palaces Symposium.

Meanwhile, the Istabl-i Amire-i Ferhan, another of the buildings which make up theYildiz Palace complex and used as a Maintenance and Repair Workshop by the Armed Forces, has also been turned over to the National Palaces and is being reconstructed. The restoration and maintenance work presently underway will allow better use of the premises without changing any aspects of the original building. Soon, the Istabl-i Amire-i Ferhan and its surroundings will be turned into a large group of buildings comprising exhibition and conference halls, workshops and architectural bureaus, a Culture-Science Promotion Center to carry out scientific research and promotion work and social installations such as restaurants and cafeterias and administrative office.

TOPKAPI PALACE

The first palace to be built by the Ottomans after the conquest of Istanbul in 1453 was in Beyazit. This later became known as the Old Palace or Saray-i Atik-i Amire. Overlooking the entrance to the Golden Horn and dominating the skyline of much of the city as it did, the site seemed auspicious. But, some say it lost its favor being too near to the commercial heart of the old capital of Byzantium, while others claim that a new palace became necessary as this hastily-built first imperial residence proved inadequate as a center for the head of state.

The chosen site for the new palace was on a promontory overlooking the confluence of the Istanbul waters, the Marmara, the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus, on the so-called first hill of the city. The promontory was already surrounded by the old sea walls of pre- Ottoman times. By adding a wall across the land side, which they called Sur-i Sultani, the Ottomans turned the ancient acropolis of Constantinople into an ideal site for a royal palace, set apart from the city and configured for easy defense. Then the foundations for the 'New Palace' or Saray-ý Cedid-i Amire, that complex of buildings which grew organically over the centuries, were laid. Repeated additions to the Palace resulted in a vast sprawl of buildings clustered over the site, including the hermetic Harem complex and a number of sections for chamberlains, stewards and the many hundreds of palace staff. Behind the sea walls were a number of pavilions, which along with lodges outside the walls and some actually perched on the wall itself, were known by Westerners as the summer harem. These shore residences, the best known of which were the Yalikosku, Sepetciler Kasri, Incili Kosk and the Topkapi Pavilion, were built at various periods along the sea walls between Sirkeci and Ahirkapý. The Topkapi or Cannon Gate Pavilion was a wooden building that stood at the cannon gate in the sea walls. We know this particular pavilion, popularly called the Topkapi Saray, or Topkapi Palace, was restored by Mahmut II, and it was only when it was destroyed by fife during the reign of Abdulaziz in 1862 that the name seems to have been adopted for all of the Grand Seraglio. An inscription belonging to the original "Topkapi Saray" is now preserved in the Topkapi Palace.

Looking at the Grand Seraglio, we see that it appears to consist of a series of courtyards, four in all, around which are clustered groups of buildings, mainly one- story structures sprawling away from a central square.

Additions over the centuries to the nucleus of the Palace made to accommodate a growing court entourage apparently disregard any conscious plan. Each building bears the decorative features of its respective era, too, and so in all, the Seraglio presents an impressive spectrum of styles, both architectural and decorative, over four centuries, from the 15th to the 19th century.

The most logical way to approach any description of the Palace would be to start at the outermost gate and move inwards through the various courts to the inner sanctum, the sultan's private apartments, the harem and the privy gardens.

FIRST COURT

We enter the first court through the Imperial Gate or Bab-ý Humayun, the ceremonial gate through which the court and important figures of state passed in procession on important occasions. The gate was originally surmounted by a keep, which was partially destroyed by fire in 1866, and totally demolished in 1924. Over the door rests an inscription giving the construction date of the portal as 1478, and under it is the imperial monogram of Mahmut II. Two marble faced blind-arched niches on either side of the gate were an addition of the Abdulaziz period (second half of the 19th century) I and above the inner arch of the portal, facing the court itself, is an inscription bearing the monogram of Abdülaziz and the date 1867. The keep and the chambers flanking the gate were used to house the public treasury or Beytülmal and the Imperial Gate treasury during Ottoman times. The gate itself was opened every day after early morning prayers, and closed before the late evening call to pray.

Entering through the portal, on the right begins the terrace where once stood the Offices of the treasury superintendants or maliye nezareti, and the palace infirmary. The treasury offices were burnt down in 1866. A gate which once abutted onto the now non-existent walls of the infirmary -the so-called 'Boot Gate' or Cizme Kapýsý opened into a path leading to the court of the armory. Although no trace of this Boot Gate exists today, there is a wall which runs along the right of the first court from where it once stood to the second gate of the palace. This wall once enclosed the palace bakeries, where the special loaves and sesame rings, called simit, were baked for the court. Attached to the bakeries were lodgings for the bakers and their staff, and a mosque for the bakery workers, -the Privy Baker's Mosque or Has Firin Camii. The bakery gate opening into the grand court bears an inscription with the date 1616. Now it serves as the entrance to a complex of buildings used as the restoration and technical laboratories of the Archaeological Museum of Istanbul. The Archaeological Museum itself can be reached via a sloping road on the opposite side of the court. As we approach the second, or middle gate, along the bakers wall, we see a fountain and a hydrostatic balance mounted on the wall, which fronts the palace water works, and close on the second gate, another fountain known popularly, althoughwithout foundation, as the 'Executioner's Fountain' or Cellat Cesmesi.

Opposite the site of the infirmary and the bakery, on the other side of the court, stands the Byzantine church of Haghia Eirene, which was renovated after the conquest for use as an armory.

This building, which became then the Privy Armory or Cebehane-i Amire for much of the Ottoman period, was later to house the Ottoman Museum of Antiquities, set up by Fethi Pasha in 1845. The collection of antiquities was removed from Haghia Eirene in 1916, in part, and became the nucleus of the Cinili Kosk and the just opened Archaeological Museum collections.

Flanking the church is the Ottoman Mint. The exact date of the building is not known, although it is thought that the imperial mint was transferred to the 'New Palace' sometime in the 18th century. It underwent repair during the reign of Mahmut II, when a royal lodge was annexed to the structure, as two inscriptions, one on the mint and another on the portal to the lodge bearing the date 1832 inform us.

SECOND COURT

With the bakery, the armory and the mint behind us, we now face the second gate of the palace, known as the 'Gate of Respects' or Bab-us Selam, which only the sultan had the right to enter on horseback, and where statesmen paid their respects to the throne by dismounting and bowing to the Imperial Threshold before entering. Today it is the entrance to the Topkapi Museum. Originally from the era of the Conqueror, the portal underwent changes in later years. The two conical towers with octagonal walls flanking in on either side are thought to date to the reign of Süleyman the Magnificent. Above the door rests an inscription bearing the Moslem "Proclamation of Unicity" the most essential tenet of faith in Islam, with the monogram of Mahmut ll below, flanked on either side by the monogram of Mustafa lll and inscriptions referring to the restoration of the portal in 1758. Massive hand- beaten iron doors are set into the gate, bearing the name of blacksmith Giyas bin Mehmet who wrought them and the date 1524. The monumental portal to the second court opens onto what was known as the Council Square, or the court of justice, as it was the site of the meetings of the imperial council. Also known as the ceremonial court, being the venue for all the pomp and circumstance of imperial pageant, it was surrounded by porticos. The porticos on the right lead to the palace kitchens, the cellars and the sweetmeats pantry via three separate gates. The cellar gate is that closest to the Bab-us Selam, and now houses the palace archives. Next to it is the larder or yaðhane-now the textile stores flanked, in turn, by the cooks' wooden chapel mosque or mescit. Beyond the mosque are the kitchens proper. Four in a row, the cupolaed rooms were portioned off for the privy kitchen, the inner or enderun kitchen, and the harem and public officials or birun kitchen. From the court ten conical roofs over the cupolas single out the kitchen annex, which now holds the palace display of Chinese and Japanese porcelain. At the end of the row of kitchens arethe sweetmeats and confectionery pantries called helvahane and reçelhane respectively, which now afford a display of kitchen utensils and the Confectioners Mosque, or Sekerci Mescit where Istanbul glassware and porcelain is now on display.

Opposite the kitchen porticos, on the other side of the grand ceremonial court a paved sloped ramp leads down from the gate of respects to the court of the imperial stables. As the slope curves down towards the stable yard a large portal on the left leading to the first grand court lets into the dividing wall. This is the Corpse Gate or Meyyit Kapýsý through which those who died in the palace were carried out in funeral. It was also the gate used by visitors to the palace during the holy month of daily fast of Ramazan, who came and went to the traditional night feasts or iftar. The stable court is enclosed on the left by the Besir Aga Mosque, which was built by the imperial palace's Chief Black Eunuch, Haci Besir Aga during the reign of Mahmut I (1730-1754), flanked by the remains of a bathhouse. Running the length of the court from the corner of the mosque are the stable buildings, the chambers of the Master of the Stables an the harness treasury, where many valuable horse-trappings in the imperial collection were stored.

This building is believed to date from the reign of Mehmet the Conqueror, whereas the main portal to the stables bears an inscription dated 1733 and refers to their restoration during the reign of Mahmut I..The far end of thicourt fronts a part of the chambers of the Crested Halberdiers or Zuluflu Baltacilar, the entrance to which, bearing an inscription of the Murat III period 1586 recording their enlargement and renovation under that sultan, opens into the court opposite the stables. The entrance leads to a stone staircase and down to a complex of chambers below ground level. These wooden chambers are the earliest original structures in the palace, thought to date primarily from the reign of the Conqueror. Clustered around a narrow open yard, they include a barracks, mescit, bathhouse, smoking room and fountain, as well as officers' chambers. There are a number of inscriptions in the rooms, the earliest of which, dated 1586, over the barracks portal, cites the architect as Mehmet Aga.

The main portal of the Crested Halberdiers barracks opens onto the grand court of justice, the second grand court of the palace and flanking it is the entrance to the harem reserved for carriages-the carriage gate. This leads into the harem proper, a world apart from the rest of the palace, and bears the inscription dated 1587, which links it with the reign of Murat III. The harem embraces over 300 rooms, nine bathhouses, two mosques, an infirmary, dormitories and a laundry, and resembles an entire neighborhood, built over a period of four hundred years, from the time of Mehmet the Conqueror to the 19th century. A fire in 1665 altered the complex in part, and repeated renovations over the latter centuries have further transformed it in accordance with changes in European decorative taste.

However, the word 'harem' invokes the sheltered life within its walls rather than its structures pure and simple, and indeed what we know of the harem buildings over much to studies of harem activities and personalities. The basic structure is a series of courts surrounded by apartments. Two main courts enclosed by the harem chambers belong respectively to the Dowager Sultan and the concubines, the latter leading, via a flight of steps, down to the harem infirmary court. There are basically two groups of buildings separable by their relationship to the organization of the harem. The first, or outer section belongs to the eunuchs and is the group of buildings between the carriage gate to the harem and the grand portal to the privy chambers and the women's apartments. Here we find the barracks, bathhouses and the chambers.

This section includes the pavilion of Murat III, the Grand Assembly Hall or Hünkar Sofasý, the pavilion of Sultan Osman, apartments of Selim III, the library of Ahmet I, the sweetmeats room of Ahmet I, the Hall with a Hearth or Ocakli Sofa, the chambers of the crown princes and the favorites as well as the bed chamber of Abdulhamit I. Out through the carriage gate into the grand court again, to the left are the chambers of the imperial council or Divan-l Hümayun, also known as the 'Dome' , which were built by Ibrahim Pasha, son-in-Iaw of Süleyman the Magnificent. The present building suffered heavy damage in the harem fire of 1665, and underwent a major restoration between 1939-1943. The triple-domed chambers of the council are fronted by an eaved portico of considerable width. The first chamber on the left as approached from the center of the grand court is the Council Room or Divan Yeri, the entrance of which is flanked of the inscriptions depicting Selim III and Mahmut II respectively, dated 1792 and 1819. A grilled window in the center of the wall opens into the chamber from the tower of justice-or Kasr-lý Adil from which the sultan observed the council meetings in camera. The tower is 42- meters high and also originally served as a watchtower for the palace, although the present tower, with its fine neo-classical column shaft pierced with windows, dating from the reign of Abdulmecit, largely replaced the earlier tower that was more massive. The original tower, with conical roof and timber upper shaft, survived until the mid-19th century. The Abdulmecit Tower was restored in 1962 and 1982. To the right of the council room, a second domed chamber was devoted to the offices of statesmen and a third, smaller chamber was allocated to the records office of the crown, known as the Defterhane, where the council minutes were kept. The council chamber remained one of the most important centers of the Ottoman administration until the end of the 18th century, after which the heads of state shifted out of the palace to the Sublime Forte or Bab-i Ali.

To the right of the dome is the Finance or inner treasury (Ic Hazine) , an eight-cupolaed chamber where the treasuri of the Finance Office or Divan-l Humayun was kept and which is thought to date from the period of the fourth wall of the grand council court, into which opens the gate into the third palace court, the Gate of Felicity or Bab-us Saade.

Also known as the Gate of the White Eunuchs as it was they who guarded this auspicious portal to the privy quarters of the palace, the Bab-üs Saade was the focus of much of the palace ceremony. The present gate dates from the 18th century and bears an inscription referring to its restoration in 1774 under Mahmut II, surmounting the monogram of the same sultan. On the opposite side of the portal, facing to the third court are inscriptions bearing the signature of Ahmet III on three round plaques, which give the names andsultanate dates of the various sultans well as their birth dates-a form of Ottoman genealogy. Originally the portal was flanked by various allocated to the white eunuchs with access from within the portal itself.

These included the grand chamber the right, originally the palace (privy) school and a bathhouse, now used as a telephone exchange and canteen. Here also is museum director's residence, formerly infirmary. To the left of the gate was wahat known as the small chamber, which backed onto the white eunuchs barraks, now housing the Embroidery Section.

THIRD COURT

Once through the Gate of the White Eunuchs, one is in what was originally the sultans' domain, the court of the privy chambers -Enderun. Beyond the palace school and bathhouse abutting the wall dividing this court from the court of justice-on the right, is the Barracks of the Campaign Pages or Seferli Kogusu, where now a display of sultans' costumes is housed. The building is a two-roomed structure founded during the reign of Murat IV in 1635 and restored by Ahmet III between 1718 and 1719 and again by Abdulmecit in the 19th century. During restorations carried out between 1977- 78 traces of the furnace room of a bathhouse were discovered under the entrance chamber, towards the wall of the imperial treasury further along the court. This must have been the furnace room of the bathhouse built by Selim II, now part of the treasury building. The treasury, which takes up the rest of the right hand wall together with what is known as the Pavilion of the Conqueror, was directly under the supervision of the sultans, and was known as the Privy Treasury or Enderun Hazinesi- or the Imperial Treasury-Hazine-i Hümayun. Here, one may now see the contents of the treasury on display. The four rooms of coarse sandstone, consisted originally of a bathhouse abutting onto the barracks of the campaign pages, the caldarium, which remains intact, a large room with central dome, two other domed chambers and an open columned terrace-room on the opposite corner of the treasury known as the 'hayat'. The entire complex is fronted by deep, flat-roofed portico. Turning the corner we face the buildings aligned along the second wall of the court, directly opposite the Gate of Felicity. Immediately adjacent to the treasury are what were once the barracks of the privy cellar slaves which were however, demolished in 1856 by Dayezade Mehmet Bey to make way for the Treasury offices or Hazine Kethüdaligi Dairesi. A traditional bathhouse remains part of the present-day building, now occupied by administrative offices.

Immediately to the left of the building, a ramp leads down to the fourt court. Passing this while remaining in the third court, one comes upon the Barrack of the Treasury Pages or Hazine Kogusu which now houses the Miniature and Portrait Gallery. This structure dates fror the period of Mehmet II, and has bee altered considerably over the course o repeated restorations, the last during the reign of Abdulmecit.

Over the door an inscription attest to this with the date 1858. The entrance t the bathhouse of the barracks was wane over during renovation work in 1975.

In the corner of the court opposite the treasury is the Apartment of the Sacred Relics, also known as the Privy Chambers, where relics belonging to the Prophet Muhammed and his companions are preserved. The earliest date we have for these chambers coincides with thereign of Mehmet the Conqueror when it was used as a throne room and relics are known to have been preserved here from an early date.

The collection of relics was considerably augmented during the reign of Selim I with those he brought with him to Istanbul after his Egyptian campaign. A basement below originally housed the attendants to the privy chambers, who were provided other accommodation during the reign of Murat IV in a barracks next to the chambers, built for them along the third side of the court, which now houses the calligraphy and manuscript section of the museum.

Modifications to this barrack hall in 1947 led to the removal of wooden partitions that had obscured the original form of the building. Returning to the privy chambers, the main portal leading into the chambers from the Enderun Court is known as the Fountain Door or Sadirvan Kapisi, as it leads to a porch-like room with a fountain or the Sadirvanli Sofa. From here one enters the petition chamber or Arzhane to the right, and beyond that the room holding the sacred relics or Hirka-i Saadet. Immediately opposite the fountain door to the sofa another door opens into the Deste-mal room (formerly known as the Throne Room). The Chamber of the Sacred Relics was restored by Mahmut II in 1822. Beyond the petition room, where visitors to the Hirka-i Saadet traditionally waited to be received into the presence of the relics, a two-roomed domed section backing onto the wall of the treasury barracks housed the rest of the palace collection of sacred relics. Known as the Silahdar Treasury or Privy Chamber Treasury (Has oda) , currently houses the palace collection of clocks.

Following the third wall of the privy court from the Barracks of the Guards of the Privy Chamber back towards the Gate of Felicity, just beyond the barracks we pass a small gate to the harem, the Kushane Gate, into the outer section of the harem allocated to the eunuchs, and leading directly to a small court between the eunuchs' section and the main door of the harem. Between the harem gate and the complex devoted to the sacred relics is the Mosque of the Chief Eunuchs or Agalar Cami, now the library containing the palace collection of manuscripts, which juts out into the court at a tangent from the periphery buildings. This portal bears an inscription dated 1723, but the building itself has been much restored, and another inscription refers to restoration work carried out in 1925. Behind the library (Agalar Cami) is a small building approached by a flight of steps, restored by the noted 20th century Turkish architect Vedat Tekin 1915, which looks over the tiny Kuþhane Court. In the center of the Privy Court stands an impressive pavilion known as the Library of Ahmet III. Raised over a basement, the actual building is faced with marble. The foundations of the library were laid on February 17th, 1719, on the site of an earlier pavilion and pool. On an axis with the Gate of Felicity and the Library of Ahmet III, another pavilion housing the Throne Room or Arz Odasi, stands between the two. Here the sultan received envoys and members of his Council.

Though it is one of the earliest structures in the palace, it has undergone considerable restoration and alteration over the course of time. The most important changes date to the reign of Abdulmecit, and post-date the great fire of 1856.

Over one portal we read the date 1723, and over another the date 1810 and the name of Mahmut II. The pavilion opens onto a broad portico and encloses a single chamber where the sultan presided over his court under a lacquered baldachin bearing an inscription citing the date 1596 and Mehmet III as patron. A fountain on the facade facing the fourth court dates from the period of Suleyman the Magnificent.

It is framed by a pair of steps. Over the portal on this facade we read the date 1807 and see also the monogram of Mustafa: A 16th century miniature and an oil painting of the 18th century both show that the Arzhane has retained its original form throughout the centuries.

FOURT COURT

This is reached either via a flight of steps next to the treasury chambers or a ramp leading down from the third court pass the Silahtar Treasury. It is less formal than the other courts, in that the buildings are not arranged around a central area and fronted by porticos. It contains scattered pavilions and terraced gardens. The highest terrace is a marble-paved area with a pool in the center embellished with a fountain, around which are arranged the Circumcision Room of the Crown Princes in the harem, the Baghdad and Revan Pavilions, and jutting through them balustrade of the terrace, the baldachin- like open kiosk known as the Iftariye Kameriyesi. As we turn into the fourth court from the Privy Court, -to the left we see the Circumcision Room of which original date is unknown although it is generally accepted as having been built at the beginning of the 16th century. The present structure owes its appearance to the renovations of the reign of Sultan Ibrahim. The single-chambered pavilion, which sports a wing at the rear bears an inscription as 1641. It is decorated with 16th century tile on both the inner and outer facades, which have been re-used throughout. Although generally employed as a venue for the circumcision of crown princes, it was also used by the sultans from time to time.

The Iftariye Kiosk, which graces the terrace between the Circumcision Room and the Baghdad Pavilion, bears the inscription 1640. It consists of an elongated rectangular baldachin on slender columns. This gilded porch was, during summer, the chosen site for the sultan's vigil during Ramazan-the month of fasting-towards sunset and the end of the daily fast.

The most noticeable structure on this terrace is, however, the Baghdad Pavilion. Octagonal in plan, it has two doors. These doors open up to a single chamber that was used as a coffeehouse for the sultans. Surrounded on the exterior by a portico supported on 22 columns, the pavilion dates from 1639 and owes its existence to the Baghdad Campaign of Murat IV during which it was built. The architect is not known, although it is generally attributed to Kasým Aða, who was the royal architect between 1623- 1651.

A replica of the Baghdad Pavilion in plan but smaller in scale is the Revan Pavilion, which shares the first terrace with its larger counterpart. Built by Murat IV in 1635 to celebrate his Revan Campaign, it was used as the Turban Room or Sarýk Odasý. A wooden roofed balcony, the roof supported on spiraelled wooden columns fronting the buildin overlooks the tulip garden.

Leading down from the terrace with a pool to the sofa terrace, also known as the tulip garden, are two flights of steps which give access to the Sofa Pavilion, the Tower of the Chief Physician or Hekimbasi Kulesi, the Mecidiye Pavilion and the Privy Wardrobe or Esvap Odasi.

The Sofa Pavilion, also known as either the Merdivenbasi Kasri or the Pavilion of Mustafa Pasha, is the only wooden pavilion of its kind in the palace According to one account- (the Silahtar Tarihi) a Russian envoy was receive( here in 1682. The earliest inscriptior borne by the actual building however dates from its restoration in 1704, during the reign of Ahmet III.

A second inscription on the facade is found adjacent the tulip garden and gives a second restoration date of 1752 along with the monogram of Mahmut I. The pavilion itself surmounts a wall stretching to the tower of the chief physician at one end and the Baghdad Pavilion at the other. Over the wall are two bays supported on pillars, which betray the existence of the Grand Assembly Hall or Divanhane and a second chamber used for ritual prayer or sherbet ceremonies The assembly hall is decorated by a fine timber ceiling and painted walls in Turkish Rococo.

The nearby Hekimbasi Kulesi, also known as the Tower of the Chief tor of the Imperial Heirs or Baþlala Kulesi, is pre-Ottoman in origin, but was incorporated into the palace during the reign of Mehmet the Conqueror. It is a square structure, with walls 1.70-meters thick. It was topped with a conical roof during the 16th century. A chestbelonging to the chief court physician was placed there subsequent to its restoration in 1912. It was used as an armory workshop at one point, and also as a private studio retreat or Meþkhane. It is now the palace pharmacy.

From the tower, we may reach the lowest terrace of the fourth court via a flight of steps that lead to the Mecidiye Pavilion, the Esvap Odasý and the Sofa Mosque, buildings of differing eras, Although the exact date of construction is not known, both the Mecidiye Pavilion and the Privy Wardrobe or Esvap Odasý were built during the reign of Abdulmecid ( 1839-1861) and reflect prevalent western architectural style. The nearby Sofa Mosque bears the date 1859 in an inscription, and it is thought that the pavilions were built about that date, when the mosque was also redecorated to match the contemporary style. The Mecidiye Pavilion replaced two earlier buildings, the Cadir Pavilion and the Pavilion of the Third Court, and was used as a reception hall for visiting heads of state. The upper floor is still employed for this purpose.

The Mecidiye Pavilion was not actually constructed until Topkapi Palace ceased to be the seat of the Ottoman sultans, when the remainder of the palace was left to retired servants, and in its decay served as a shelter for the destitute and disabled. It was not until after the foundation of the Republic of Turkey that it was turned into a museum, in 1924.

WOODCARVİNG

The decorative wooden objects found in excavations in Central Asia show that the Turkish art of woodcarving dates back to the distant past. As in other branches of art, animal motifs with legendary and religious significance were frequently used in the decoration of wooden objects. This tradition known as the "animal style", was gradually abandoned and replaced by vegetal and geometric motifs after the Turks adopted Islam.

Extant everyday objects used over the lengthy time segment encompassing both the Seljuk and Ottoman periods are so few as to be practically non-existent. In contrast, architectural accessories of religious structures dating from the Seljuk period, as well as objects used in these buildings, are sufficient in number to give a good idea of Turkish woodcarving. Doors and window shutters, pulpits of mosques, sarcophagi in mausoleums, Koran stands and lecterns display highly advanced woodcarving. Although rare, carvings of animal figures on such objects are interesting as an illustration of the continuity of this tradition.

Architectural elements in certain mosques in Anatolia provide considerable information on woodcarving in principalities during the post-Seljuk period. The columns and capitals as well as beams of these mosques, most of which date from the 13th century, exhibit distinct woodcarving. Pulpits of mosques in particular tended to be almost exclusively constructed out of wood.

It is a fact that woodcarving developed following the migration of the Turks to Anatolia, a phenomenon in which the influence of geography and the cultural milleu cannot be denied. Syria and Egypt in particular demonstrated development in this art parallel to that in Anatolia in terms of the techniques employed. In this connection, it is important to remember that at the time Anatolia was very rich.

The bulk of extant wooden objects from the Seljuk and Ottoman periods are housed in the Ankara Ethnographical Museum and the Istanbul Museum of Turkish and Islamic Antiquities. They consist primarily of such architectural elements as mihrabs (prayer niches), mosque and cabinet doors and display a truly superior level of workmanship. The signatures of the craftsmen even appear on some of the objects.

The wealth of decoration seen on the woodcarving  used in Seljuk architecture developed parallel to the architecture of that period. In this regard, it is necessary to remember the highly ornamental facades of mosques, especially during that period. A similar development cannot be traced to the Ottoman period, which is an interesting fact in itself. Apart from a few exceptions, a new simplicity gradually came to predominate wooden architectural elements during the reign of the Ottomans. Although certain new techniques, such as mother-of-pearl inlay, did emerge in the meantime, they did not actually contradict the new trend towards simplification both because they only indirectly represented woodcarving and because they did not produce the same effect for the viewer. In fact, wooden architectural elements in the Ottoman period, with their more stark and simple appearance, took on a more basic and functional air, and more specifically aesthetic elements thereby replaced the exaggerated ornamentation of the Seljuks.

Wooden houses constitute a little known aspect of Turkish architecture. The facades, eaves and ceiling decorations of traditional Turkish wooden houses constitute fascinating examples of carving and the false inlay technique and exhibit a variety of styles from period to period.

A new approach that gradually gained acceptance in the Ottoman period was painting on wood. From the 15th century onwards, decorations began to be painted on architectural elements as well as on smaller wooden objects. Interesting examples date to the 18th and 19th centuries in the secular architecture of Topkapı Palace and of such urban centers as Edirne and Bursa. Among these examples, the large cabinets, corner cupboards and niches were influenced by the forms of their counterparts made of marble in the great palaces. Edirne was an important center of woodcarving, and the technique of painting on wood known as Edirnekari spread to İstanbul and other regions throughout the Empire. Using this painting technique, in which green was predominant as a background color, various articles of everyday use such as drawers, boxes and chairs were produced, some of which were lacquered.

Among the wooden transport vehicles used by the Palace and the upper classes there are examples of woodcarving that may be regarded as masterpieces in their genre. The caiques and carriages produced in İstanbul fall into separate categories of large-scale wooden objects. The imperial caiques and carriages preserved at present in various museums have special value since they constitute examples of carving and painting techniques. The same can be said of the thrones in Topkapı Palace, which, with their decorations in gold, silver and precious stones, also represent the jeweler's art.

Another genre of Ottoman woodcarving was the simultaneous use of metal applique and metal plaques. The wood used for objects of this genre was not highly decorative in itself, the emphasis being rather on the metal accessories. Metal put on doors, window shutters and cabinet doors had existed since the Seljuk period. Plaques of various metals, mainly silver, displaying motifs worked in the repousse technique were mounted on everyday wooden objects such as chests, clogs and dustpans from the 16th century on. This technique was widespread.

Close relations existed between the masters who crafted the wooden elements used in architecture (neccar) and the architects, which was especially evident in the Ottoman period when many architects were former carpenters and masters of intarsia. Mehmet Agha, for example, the architect of Sultanahmet Mosque, was a master of mother-of-pearl inlay.

These craftsmen who worked in inlay were experts at applying substances like mother-of-pearl and tortoise shell on wood. Doors and window shutters, cabinets, drawers, stools and Koran stands were often decorated in this way. The inlay work of Damascus differed from that of İstanbul. Of all the sultans, Abdülhamid II (1842-1918) probably appreciated woodcarving the most. During his reign, he worked in his own carpentry shop and a distinctive Palace style began to take shape.

Local woodcarving survives today in some parts of southeastern Anatolia. Diyarbakır, for example, has long been known for its damascene canes and Kahramanmaraş for its elaborately carved furniture.

Motifs

Vegetal motifs and geometric designs were frequently used in combination on wooden doors and window shutters.

The diversity of motifs employed varied with the period, the region and the technique used. A parallelism is observable, for example, between the rich architectural decorations of the Seljuk period and the ornamentation seen on metal objects during the same period. Be it the vegetal Rumi and Hatayi motifs or the inscriptions and the interlocking geometric patterns, they all bear a strong resemblance to each other. Geometric designs carved in interlocking patterns are stunning. Mother-of-pearl, which because of its hardness and dimensions was not suitable for three-dimensional work, was often used to create wood inlays with geometric motifs.

Technique

The materials most frequently used in decorative carving are walnut, apple, pear, cedar, ivory and rose. Anatolia was always self-sufficient when it came to wood and even exported this raw material to Syria and Egypt who were less well-endowed in this respect.

"Kündekari" or tongue-and-groove joining, is the name given to the technique of placing small pieces of wood side by side to form a design. This technique, was first seen in Islamic art in the 12th century. It was employed both by the Seljuks and Ottomans, who enriched it with innovative and more advanced methods. Special attention should be drawn here to the fact that the creation of interlocking patterns in wood is much more difficult than the application of similar patterns on books and metals because such woodcarving is an entirely plastic art.

Kündekari, which was employed more often on the backboards of pulpits and on doors, falls into two categories: genuine "kündekari" and imitation "kündekari". In geniune "kündekari" pieces of wood of various geometric shapes decorated with vegetal motifs are skillfully placed side by side. The joining of these pieces without any nails or glue requires a high degree of expertise. They are joined in such a way that even if the wood dries up and shrinks the pieces will not fall out.

On the other hand, in imitation "kündekari", a variety of techniques utilizing relief carving in combination with glue and nails, or sometimes using relief alone, were employed to create the appearance of "kündekari" with only a single piece, or very few pieces of wood.

The Ottomans used plain pieces of wood in place of geometric shapes. The mid-sections of double doors, which were traditionally divided into three sections, were often decorated with tiny mirrors surmounted by an inscription in the topmost section.

Relief Carving

This technique was widely used to decorate doors, window shutters, chests and other objects used in everyday life. Some of the varieties employed include deep incising of flat and curved surfaces, and carving in two planes. In the case of the latter, an inscription would be added in a second plane over another carved surface decorated with vegetal motifs.

Lattice Technique

This is a technique of combining pieces of wood to create a lattice. Sometimes polygonal or star-shaped metal plaques were added as fillings between the cross-pieces. An ajour or openwork effect could also be created by carving out motifs here and there on the surface of the wood.

Marquetry

First observed in the 14th and 15th centuries, this technique became very widespread among the Ottomans. It consisted of applying in thin plates substances such as mother-of-pearl, ivory or tortoise shell on wood. The edges of the plates were decorated with narrow, raised bands. Such plates can also be applied by first carving out the surface of the wood and then gluing the pieces in place like a mosaic, as in intarsia. The Turks rank first among the various Islamic peoples in their expertise in applying this technique.

Widely used until this century on such furniture as chairs, stools and mirror frames, this art is still practiced today.

Painting

Painting, which first came into use as a decorative architectural element among the Seljuks, underwent extensive development under the Ottomans in the 17th and 18th centuries. At that time, triangular, polygonal and star-shaped plaques painted with vegetal motifs were used on doors and pulpits to give the appearance of "kündekari". After the 18th century, painted fruit and floral designs of European origin were frequently employed as decorative elements in secular architecture.

Three-dimensional carving is observable in Ottoman woodcarving. This style of carving, which was generally used to decorate the ceilings of libraries, is as valuable aesthetically as it is technically, and an attempt is being made to keep it alive today.